Malacca Sultanate
Established by the Malay ruler Parameswara, the Sultanate of Malacca was first a Hindu kingdom in 1402 and later became Muslim following the marriage of the princess of Pasai in 1409. Centered in the modern town of Malacca, the sultanate bordered the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) in the north to Sumatra in the southwest. The Portuguese invaded its capital in 1511 and in 1528. In the aftermath the Sultanate of Johor was established by the Malaccan prince Alauddin Riayat Shah II as a successor state.
Establishment of Malacca
Early foundation
Parameswara, founded Malacca around 1400. According to the Malay Annals, he was the last king of Singapura and a member of the royal family of Srivijaya.
In 1299, a Srivijayan prince, Sang Nila Utama removed himself from Bintan to Temasek where he founded Singapura. He maintained control over the island for 48 years and was recognized as a ruler by an envoy of the Chinese Emperor in 1366.[1] He was officially styled Sri Maharaja Sang Utama Parameswara Batara Sri Tri Buana (meaning: "Lord Central King Batara of "Sri Tri Buana" or 'Three world Realm'"), signifying his lordship over Palembang, Bintan and Singapura. Three other rulers succeeded the throne later, Sri Tri Buana's son, Paduka Sri Pekerma Wira Diraja (1372–1386), his grandson Paduka Seri Rana Wira Kerma (1386–1399) and his great grandson Paduka Sri Maharaja Parameswara (1399–1413).[1] In 1390s, Majapahit sent thousands of ships to attack the remaining Malay realm of Srivijaya including Singapura. In collusion with the Bendahara Sang Rajuna Tapa, Majapahit managed to conquer Singapura in 1401 and expelled Parameswara.[2]
Parameswara fled north to Muar, Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before founding Melaka in 1402. According to the Sejarah Melayu, legend has it that the king saw a mouse deer outwit a dog when he was resting under the Melaka tree. He took what he saw as a good omen and decided to establish a capital for his kingdom there. Today, the mouse deer is part of modern Malacca's coat of arms. The name "Malacca" itself was derived from the fruit-bearing Melaka tree (Malay: Pokok Melaka) (Phyllanthus emblica).[3]
Islamic arrival and Chinese protectorate
At the foundation of Malacca, the native peoples were the peoples with Hinduism and Buddhism influence. According to the annals record, at the time Parameswara founded Malacca, the country was often attacked by the old enemies Majapahit and the rivals from northern area of Malacca, Ayutthaya Kingdom. Malacca able to hold position and fight back the enemies. Parameswara decided to send his ambassador to visit the Emperor of China, one of the superpower of the period, the Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, and both agreed to become allies. Ever since the agreement between Malacca Empire and China Empire, the Ayutthaya Kingdom and Majapahit Empire never intended to attack Malacca. Later some record suggested that during the trade activities and arrival of the Chinese-Muslim admiral "Cheng Ho" or Zheng He, Parameswara converted to Islam and adopted an Islamic name, Sultan Iskandar Shah. The new religion spread quickly throughout his conversion and the voyage of Zheng He.
Ming dynasty China warned Thailand and the Majapahit against trying to conquer and attack the Malacca sultanate, placing the Malacca Sultanate under Chinese protection as a protectorate, and giving the ruler of Malacca the title of King. The Chinese strengthened several warehouses in Malacca. The Muslim Sultanate flourished due to the Chinese protection against the Thai and other powers who wanted to attack Malacca. Thailand was also a tributary to China and had to obey China's orders not to attack[4][5][6][7]
Golden age
After Parameswara, his successor to the Malacca sultanate was Sultan Ahmad Shah. He was responsible for building the empire with the help of the Malays, Orang Laut (Seaman) and Orang Asli (Natives). The territory of Malacca Empire were extended from South Thailand to most of Sumatran east coast area. The kingdom conveniently control the global trade vital choke point; the narrow strait that today bears its name, Strait of Malacca.
The port city had become the centre of regional trade; it attracted most of the traders from in the archipelago; traders from Sumatra, port of Sunda, Java and Bugis are reported to frequent the port. It is also due to geographic location of Malacca that gave the port city its strategic advantage. The monsoon wind that blow to northwest during dry season (March to October) conveniently brought trade vessels sailing from Southern Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Mollucas and eastern parts of the archipelago to Malacca; in wet season (October to March) the wind blow from mainland Asia to southeast, conveniently brought trade vessels sailing from ports in Northern Sumatra, India, Siam, Cambodia, Vietnam and China to converge in Malacca. The Malaccan Empire had turned from a maritime empire into an entrepôt empire. Other Eastern civilizations such as the Chinese Empire and the Siamese and Western civilizations such as Persian, Gujarat, Arabs and Europeans vastly traded with Malacca. One statement said that:
| “ |
All traders from the West and the Orient came to Malacca. The whole city at that time, full of people. |
” |
Portuguese arrival
During the reign of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah, the Portuguese came to Malacca for the following reasons;
- to collect spices and wealth
- to conquer the land of the Orient
- to manage the land of the Orient in the name of Columbus's voyage
The Portuguese who came were led by Vasco de Gama until India and then Diogo Lopes de Sequeira until they reached Malacca.
Administration
Malacca had a well-defined government with a set of laws. On top of the sultanate's hierarchy sat the sultan and he was an absolute monarch. Below him was a bendahara, a position similar to that of a prime minister. Most of all, a bendahara was an adviser to the sultan. A bendahara is a common person appointed by the sultan and it was the highest ranking officer that could be held by any common people. After bendahara, a laksamana's authority is paramount. A laksamana is an admiral and was responsible for the state and the sultan's security. He commanded the army. Later comes the temenggung which more or less a chief of public police. At the bottom of this nobility structure are penghulu bendahari, who was the treasurer of the state and the shahbandars of whom were responsible to matters of trade and ports.
The most famous Malaccan bendahara is Tun Perak. Under his advice, he managed to expand Malacca to its greatest extent. Hang Tuah was an example of a Malaccan laksamana.
The sultanate was governed with several set of laws. The formal legal text of traditional Melaka consisted of the Undang-Undang Melaka (Laws of Malacca), variously called the Hukum Kanun Melaka and Risalat Hukum Kanun, and the Undang-Undang Laut Melaka (the Maritime Laws of Malacca). The laws as written in the legal digests went through an evolutionary process. The legal rules that eventually evolved were shaped by three main influences, namely the early non-indigenous Hindu/Buddhist tradition, Islam and the indigenous "adat".
Factors for growth
The Sultanate thrived on entrepôt trade and became the most important port in Southeast Asia during the 15th and the early 16th century. Furthermore, Malacca was the only major player in the spice trade, serving as a gateway between the Spice Islands and high-paying Eurasian markets. This is reflected by the Portuguese Tomé Pires who claimed "Whoever is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice".
One of the factors that contributed to the rise of Malacca was the monsoon winds that enabled Arab and Indian traders from the west to travel to China in the east and vice versa. At the height of its power, the Sultanate encompassed most of modern day Peninsular Malaysia, the site of modern day Singapore and a great portion of Sumatra Island and some part of Southern Thailand. It was also the center of Islam in the eastern sphere, where imams and ustazes came to discuss religion and the like. Muslim missionaries were also sent by the Sultan to spread Islam to other communities in the Malay Archipelago, such as in Java, Borneo, and the Philippines. Most of South East Asia at that time was Hindu.
The Sultanate's most important regional rivals were Siam in the north and the declining Majapahit Empire in the south. In earlier period, Majapahit was the previous regional hegemon that tried to hold its overseas possessions in Sumatra and most of the archipelago that led to naval expeditions against Palembang and Tumasik which led to the establishment of Malacca sultanate. However the internal conflicts has led Majapahit into incessant decline and find itself unable to contained the rising influence of Malacca. Majapahit was unable to compete with Malacca to control the trade within the archipelago, and came to an end during the later 15th century. Siam on the other hand attacked Malacca three times, but all attacks were repelled.
At the same time, Malacca had a great relationship with Ming, resulting in Zheng He's visits. Parameswara had met the Ming emperor to receive a Letter of Friendship, hence making Malacca the first foreign kingdom to attain such treatment to be part against Siam. Moreover, one of the sultans, Mansur Shah even married a Ming princess named Hang Li Po. This Sino-Malacca relationship helped deter Siam from further threatening Malacca.(See Zheng He In Malacca.)
Portuguese invasion and its effects
Hearing of Malacca's great wealth coming from Asian traders, the Portuguese king sent Admiral Diogo Lopes de Sequeira to find Malacca, to make a friendly compact with its ruler and to stay on Portugal's representative east of India. The first European to reach Malacca and Southeast Asia, Sequeira arrived in Malacca in 1509. Although he was initially well-received by Sultan Mahmud Shah trouble however quickly ensued.[8] The general feeling of rivalry between Islam and Christianity was invoked by a group of Goa Muslims in the sultan's court after the Portuguese had captured Goa.[9] The international Muslim trading community convinced Mahmud that the Portuguese were a grave threat. Mahmud subsequently captured several of his men, killed others and attempted to attack the four Portuguese ships, although they escaped. As the Portuguese had found in India, conquest would be the only way they could establish themselves in Malacca.[8]
In April 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque set sail from Goa to Malacca with a force of some 1200 men and seventeen or eighteen ships.[8] The Viceroy made a number of demands - one of which was for permission to build a fortress as a Portuguese trading post near the city.[9] All the demands were refused by the Sultan. Conflict was unavoidable, and after 40 days of fighting, Malacca fell to the Portuguese on August 24. Although Malacca seems to have been well supplied with artillery, but the combination of Portuguese firepower, determination and fanatical courage prevailed. A bitter dispute between Sultan Mahmud and his son Sultan Ahmad also weighed down the Malaccan side.[8] The Portuguese was helped by Guy Arojo, Chinese Capitans who supplied small ships to enter the Port of Malacca and the southern Indian and Javanese group who were in dispute with the Sultanate of Malacca.
Albuquerque remained in Malacca until November 1511 preparing its defences against any Malay counterattack.[8] Sultan Mahmud Shah was forced to flee Malacca. The sultan made several attempts to retake the capital but his efforts were fruitless. The Portuguese retaliated and forced the sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the sultan sailed to Bintan and established a new capital there. With a base established, the sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organized several attacks and blockades against the Portuguese's position. Frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship. The raids helped convince the Portuguese that the exiled sultan's forces must be silenced. A number of attempts were made to suppress the Malay forces, but it wasn't until 1526 that the Portuguese finally razed Bintan to the ground. The sultan then retreated to Kampar in Sumatra where he died two years later. He left behind two sons named Muzaffar Shah and Alauddin Riayat Shah II.
Muzaffar Shah was invited by the people in the north of the peninsula to become their ruler, establishing the Sultanate of Perak. Meanwhile, Mahmud's other son, Alauddin succeeded his father and made a new capital in the south. His realm was the Sultanate of Johor, the successor of Malacca.
It soon became clear that Portuguese control of Malacca did not mean they now controlled Asian trade that centred around it. Their Malaccan rule was marred with difficulties: they could not become self-supporting and remained reliant on Asian suppliers (as had their Malay predecessors); they were short of both funds and manpower; and administration was hampered by organisational confusion and command overlap, corruption and inefficiency. Competition from other ports such as Johor saw Asian traders bypass Malacca and the city began to decline as a trading port.[10] Rather than achieving their ambition of dominating it, the Portuguese had fundamentally disrupted the organisation of the Asian trade network. Rather than a centralised port of exchange of Asian wealth exchange, or a Malay state to police the Straits of Malacca that made it safe for commercial traffic, trade was now scattered over a number of ports amongst bitter warfare in the Straits.[10]
Malacca was later conquered by the Dutch in a joint military campaign in January 1641. The Portuguese fortress, however, did not fall to the force of Dutch or Johorese arms as much as to famine and disease that had brutally decimated the surviving population.[11] Through the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, Malacca became a colony of the United Kingdom. In 1957, Malacca joined other Malay states to form Malaya and in 1963, together with Sarawak, Sabah and Singapore formed Malaysia.
Chinese retaliation against Portuguese
In response to the Portuguese invasion of Malacca, the Chinese Imperial Government imprisoned and executed multiple Portuguese envoys after torturing them in Guangzhou. Since Malacca was a tributary state to China, the Chinese responded with violent force against the Portuguese. The Malaccans had informed the Chinese of the Portuguese seizure of Malacca, to which the Chinese responded with hostility toward the Portuguese. The Malaccans told the Chinese of the deception the Portuguese used, disguising plans for conquering territory as mere trading activities, and told of all the atrocities committed by the Portuguese. [12] Malacca was under Chinese protection and the Portuguese invasion angered the Chinese.[13]
Due to the Malaccan Sultan lodging a complaint against the Portuguese invasion to the Chinese Emperor, the Portuguese were greeted with hostility from the Chinese when they arrived in China.[14][15][16][17][18] The Sultan's complaint caused "a great deal of trouble" to Portuguese in China.[19] The Chinese were very "unwelcoming" to the Portuguese.[20] The Malaccan Sultan, based in Bintan after fleeing Malacca, sent a message to the Chinese, which combined with Portuguese banditry and violent activity in China, led the Chinese authorities to execute 23 Portuguese and torture the rest of them in jails. After the Portuguese set up posts for trading in China and committed piratical activities and raids in China, the Chinese responded with the complete extermination of the Portuguese in Ningbo and Quanzhou[21] Pires, a Portuguese trade envoy, was among those who died in the Chinese dungeons.[22][23][24]The rest of the Portuguese embassy stayed imprisoned for life.[25]
The Chinese defeated a Portuguese fleet in 1521 at the First Battle of Tamao (1521), killing and capturing so many Portuguese that the Portuguese had to abandon their junks and retreat with only three ships, only escaping back to Malacca because a wind scattered the Chinese ships as the Chinese launched a final attack.[26]
The Chinese effectively held the Portuguese embassy hostage, using them as a bargaining chip in demanding that the Portuguese restore the deposed Malaccan Sultan (King) to his throne.[27]
The Chinese proceeded to executed several Portuguese by beating and strangling them, and torturing the rest. The other Portuguese prisoners were put into iron chains and kept in prison.[28]The Chinese confisticated all of the Potuguese property and goods in the Pires embassy's possesion.[29]
In 1522 Martim Afonso de Merlo Coutinho was appointed commander of another Portuguese fleet sent to establish diplomatic relations.[30] The Chinese defeated the Portuguese ships lead by Coutinho at the Second Battle of Tamao (1522). A large amount of Portuguese were captured and ships destroyed during the battle. The Portuguese were forced to retreat to Malacca.[31][32]
The Chinese forced Pires to write letters for them, demanding that the Portuguese restore the deposed Malaccan Sultahn (King) back onto his throne. The Malay ambassador to China was to deliver the letter.[33]
The Chinese had sent a message to the deposed Sultan (King) of Malacca concerning the fate of the Portuguese embassy, which the Chinese held prisoner. When they received his reply, the Chinese officials then proceeded to executed the Portuguese embassy, slicing their bodies into multiple pieces. Their genitalia were inserted into the oral cavity. The Portuguese were executed in public in multiple areas in Guangzhou, deliberately by the Chinese in order to show that the Portuguese were insignificant in the eyes of the Chinese.[34]When more Portuguese ships landed and were seized by the Chinese, the Chinese then executed them as well, cutting off the genitalia and beheading the bodies and forcing their fellow Portuguese to wear the body parts, while the Chinese celebrated with music. The genitalia and heads were displayed strung up for display in public, after which they were discarded.[35]
In response to Portuguese piracy and establishing bases in Fujian at Wuyu island and Yue harbor at Zhangzhou, Shuangyu island in Wenzhou, and Nan'ao island in Guangdong, the Imperial Chinese Right Deputy Commander Zhu Wang exterminated all the pirates and razedthe Shuangyu Portuguese base, using force to prohibit trading with foreigners by sea.[36]
Chinese Boycott and Counterattacks
Chinese traders boycotted Malacca after it fell under Portuguese control, some Chinese in Java assisted in Muslim attempts to reconquer the city from Portugal using ships. The Java Chinese participation in retaking Malacca was recorded in "The Malay Annals of Semarang and Cerbon"[37] trading the Chinese did business with Malays and Javanese instead of the Portuguese.[38]
Fei Xin's description of Malacca
Fei Xin (Chinese: 费信) was a translator for the Ming Dynasty admiral Zheng He during his expeditions abroad. In his Description of the Starry Raft (1436) there were descriptions of early 15th century Malacca.
He noted that Malacca people which was the Malays had "their skin resembled black lacquer, but there were some white-skinned people among them who are of ethnic Tang. Men and women appeared in mallet-like chignon hair style, simple and kind lifestyle, they fish at rivers and at sea. The coastal village was inhabited by very few peoples and was not ruled by any neighboring kingdoms. The only produce of Malacca was tin, from a river. Tins obtained from river were fired into tin block (known as Tin ingot) where each weigh 1.4 jin.
Currency
Tin ingots were a trading currency unique to Malacca. Cast in the shape of a peck, each block weighs just over one pound. Ten blocks made up one unit called a 'small bundle', and 40 blocks made up one 'large bundle'.
Legacy
Although the empire only lasted about a hundred years — compared to its predecessor Srivijaya that lasted for about seven centuries — Malacca sultanate had lasting and important legacy, especially within Malay culture and the History of Malaysia. Malacca was important because it was the first Malay Muslim state that is also a real regional maritime power. Of course there were two well-established entrepots (Samudra Pasai and Aru) that already existed across the straits on Sumatra, as well as at Kedah on the Peninsula. Samudra Pasai was known as the earliest Muslim state in the archipelago, but Pasai did not embark on regional maritime expansion as Malacca did. Malacca did contribute to the evolution of Malay culture, influenced by native and Hindu-Buddhist ideas to become an Islamic culture by incorporating Islamic ideas, the new religion that today became closely identified with Malay society.[39] Through its traditions, laws, and royal rituals and customs, the Malaccan court set the example for later Muslim sultanates in the region to follows.
Next to its role on promoting Islamic faith, Malacca is important especially for Malaysia because it was the only empire centered within the territory of modern Malaysia. There was older kingdoms established on the Malay peninsula, such as Kedah and Langkasuka, but they never become the center of a maritime empire, and rather become the subject and overshadowed by Srivijaya centered in Sumatra. Because of these roles, Malacca is considered by many to be the spiritual birthplace of Malaysia.[40] The historical importance of Malacca for Malaysian national identity is exhibited in National Museum of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
See also
References
General
- ^ a b Buyers, Christopher. "The Ruling House of Malacca - Johor". http://www.royalark.net/Malaysia/malacca.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-13.
- ^ Windstedt (KBE, CMG, D.Litt (ed).), Sir R.O (1938). "The Malay Annals or Sejarah Melayu". Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (The Branch) XVI: 32.
- ^ Origin of Malacca
- ^ Warren I. Cohen (2000). East Asia at the center: four thousand years of engagement with the world (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 175. ISBN 0231101090. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZkLqv9pdCk4C&pg=PA180&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&hl=en&ei=RSr1TdHSLO2o0AH9-OjrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=protectorate%20melaka%20paramesvara&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011.
- ^ Kenneth Warren Chase (2003). Firearms: a global history to 1700 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 0521822742. http://books.google.com/books?id=esnWJkYRCJ4C&pg=PA142&dq=malacca+chinese++portuguese++attack&hl=en&ei=lyr1TYTtCKfn0QGi_6yFDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBA#v=snippet&q=chinese%20recognized%20melaka%20independent%20state%20warned%20king%20thailand%20not%20meddle&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "The Chinese recognized Melaka as an independent state and warned the king of Thailand not to meddle with it... Nevertheless, the Chinese did not seek to establish colonies overseas, even when they anchored in places with large Chinese populations, like Sumatra and Java. They turned Melaka into a kind of protectorate and built a fortified warehouse there, but that was about it."
- ^ Colonial armies in Southeast Asia. Routledge. p. 21. ISBN 1134314760. http://books.google.com/books?id=Yn25FY2pY3EC&pg=PA21&dq=malacca+arabs+to+the+sword&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XHfqTtXaMIjx0gHn0422CQ&ved=0CGgQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=malacca%20arabs%20to%20the%20sword&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "important legacy of Chinese imperialism... by intervening in the Melaka Straits in a way that faciliated the rise of Melaka, and protected it from depredations from Thailand (Siam) and from Java's state of Majapahit;...Melaka ...having been founded...by a ruler fleeing Singapore in the fact of Thai and Javanese hostility. Melaka repeatedly sent envoys to China. China in turn claimed the power to deter other tributary states, such as Thailand, from interfering with Melaka, and also claimed to have raised the 'chief' of Melaka to the status of king in 1405, and Melaka to a protected polity in 1410. Melaka as a Muslim Sultanate consolidated itself and thrived precisely in an era of Chinese-led 'globalisation'. which was gathering pace by the late fourteenth century, and peaked at this time."
- ^ Karl Hack, Tobias Rettig, ed (2006). Colonial armies in Southeast Asia. Volume 33 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 21. ISBN 0415334136. http://books.google.com/books?id=rxkKu46vhj0C&pg=PA21&dq=malacca+arabs+to+the+sword&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XHfqTtXaMIjx0gHn0422CQ&ved=0CGEQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=malacca%20arabs%20to%20the%20sword&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "important legacy of Chinese imperialism... by intervening in the Melaka Straits in a way that faciliated the rise of Melaka, and protected it from depredations from Thailand (Siam) and from Java's state of Majapahit;...Melaka ...having been founded...by a ruler fleeing Singapore in the fact of Thai and Javanese hostility. Melaka repeatedly sent envoys to China. China in turn claimed the power to deter other tributary states, such as Thailand, from interfering with Melaka, and also claimed to have raised the 'chief' of Melaka to the status of king in 1405, and Melaka to a protected polity in 1410. Melaka as a Muslim Sultanate consolidated itself and thrived precisely in an era of Chinese-led 'globalisation'. which was gathering pace by the late fourteenth century, and peaked at this time."
- ^ a b c d e Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition. London: MacMillan. pp. 23. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.
- ^ a b Mohd. Fawzi bin Mohd. Basri; Mohd Fo'ad bin Sakdan; Azami bin Man (2002). Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah Sejarah Tingkatan 1. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. pp. 95. ISBN 983-62-7410-3.
- ^ a b Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, 2nd Edition. London: MacMillan. pp. 23–24. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.
- ^ Borschberg, P. (2010). The Singapore and Melaka Straits. Violence, Security and Diplomacy in the 17th Century. Singapore: NUS Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN 978-9971-69-464-7.
- ^ Nigel Cameron (1976). Barbarians and mandarins: thirteen centuries of Western travelers in China. Volume 681 of A phoenix book (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 143. ISBN 0226092291. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZOc-AQAAIAAJ&q=envoy,+had+most+effectively+poured+out+his+tale+of+woe,+of+deprivation+at+the+hands+of+the+Portuguese+in+Malacca;+and+he+had+backed+up+the+tale+with+others+concerning+the+reprehensible+Portuguese+methods+in+the+Moluccas,+making+the+case+(quite+truthfully)&dq=envoy,+had+most+effectively+poured+out+his+tale+of+woe,+of+deprivation+at+the+hands+of+the+Portuguese+in+Malacca;+and+he+had+backed+up+the+tale+with+others+concerning+the+reprehensible+Portuguese+methods+in+the+Moluccas,+making+the+case+(quite+truthfully)&hl=en&ei=BHafTvGvLILo0QHDuNXeBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA. Retrieved 18 July 2011. "envoy, had most effectively poured out his tale of woe, of deprivation at the hands of the Portuguese in Malacca; and he had backed up the tale with others concerning the reprehensible Portuguese methods in the Moluccas, making the case (quite truthfully) that European trading visits were no more than the prelude to annexation of territory. With the tiny sea power at this time available to the Chinese" )
- ^ Zhidong Hao (2011). Macau History and Society (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 11. ISBN 9888028545. http://books.google.com/books?id=LP9q1dzVRYQC&pg=PA11&dq=malacca+chinese++portuguese++attack&hl=en&ei=lyr1TYTtCKfn0QGi_6yFDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=malacca%20chinese%20%20portuguese%20%20attack&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "Pires came as an ambassador to Beijing to negotiate trade terms and settlements with China. He did make it to Beijing, but the mission failed because first, while Pires was in Beijing, the dethroned Sultan of Malacca also sent an envoy to Beijing to complain to the emperor about the Portuguese attack and conquest of Malacca. Malacca was part of China's suzerainty when the Portuguese took it. The Chinese were apparently not happy with what the Portuguese did there."
- ^ Ahmad Ibrahim, Sharon Siddique, Yasmin Hussain, ed (1985). Readings on Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 11. ISBN 9971988089. http://books.google.com/books?id=BeDKqPTeHnUC&pg=PA11&dq=China+was+far+from+friendly;+this,+it+seems,+had+something+to+do+with+the+complaint+which+the+ruler+of+Malacca,+conquered+by+the+Portuguese+in+1511,+had+lodged+with+the+Chinese+emperor,+his+suzerain.+There+are+hints+that+Pires&hl=en&ei=WUifTuucEMfs0gHy07GaCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=China%20was%20far%20from%20friendly%3B%20this%2C%20it%20seems%2C%20had%20something%20to%20do%20with%20the%20complaint%20which%20the%20ruler%20of%20Malacca%2C%20conquered%20by%20the%20Portuguese%20in%201511%2C%20had%20lodged%20with%20the%20Chinese%20emperor%2C%20his%20suzerain.%20There%20are%20hints%20that%20Pires&f=false. Retrieved 18 July 2011. "in China was far from friendly; this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Malacca, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain." )
- ^ Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) (1968). Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde, Part 124. M. Nijhoff. p. 446. http://books.google.com/books?ei=WUifTuucEMfs0gHy07GaCQ&ct=result&id=Mz4iAQAAMAAJ&dq=China+was+far+from+friendly%3B+this%2C+it+seems%2C+had+something+to+do+with+the+complaint+which+the+ruler+of+Malacca%2C+conquered+by+the+Portuguese+in+1511%2C+had+lodged+with+the+Chinese+emperor%2C+his+suzerain.+There+are+hints+that+Pires&q=1511+lodged+chinese+emperor+suzerain. Retrieved 18 July 2011. "The reception in China was far from friendly; this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Malacca, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain." (University of Minnesota)
- ^ Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde, Volume 124. 1968. p. 446. http://books.google.com/books?ei=WUifTuucEMfs0gHy07GaCQ&ct=result&id=KS8KAQAAIAAJ&dq=China+was+far+from+friendly%3B+this%2C+it+seems%2C+had+something+to+do+with+the+complaint+which+the+ruler+of+Malacca%2C+conquered+by+the+Portuguese+in+1511%2C+had+lodged+with+the+Chinese+emperor%2C+his+suzerain.+There+are+hints+that+Pires&q=1511+suzerain. Retrieved 18 July 2011. "The reception in China was far from friendly; this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Malacca, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain." (the University of California)
- ^ The propagation of Islam in the Indonesian-Malay archipelago. Malaysian Sociological Research Institute,. 2001. p. 136. ISBN 9839986627. http://books.google.com/books?ei=onqfTsyGMIHw0gHjx8jUBA&ct=result&id=4tHXAAAAMAAJ&dq=His+reception+in+China+was+far+from+friendly%3B+this%2C+it+seems%2C+had+something+to+do+with+the+complaint+which+the+ruler+of+Melaka%2C+conquered+by+the+Portuguese+in+1511%2C+had+lodged+with+the+Chinese+emperor%2C+his+suzerain.&q=1511+suzerain. Retrieved 18 July 2011. "His reception in China was far from friendly; this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Melaka, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain." (the University of Michigan)
- ^ Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië, Hague (1968). Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, Volume 124. M. Nijhoff. p. 446. http://books.google.com/books?ei=-XqfTo7oH-rz0gHgpY34BA&ct=result&id=8FPjAAAAMAAJ&dq=The+reception+in+China+was+far+from+friendly%3B+this%2C+it+seems%2C+had+something+to+do+with+the+complaint+which+the+ruler+of+Malacca%2C+conquered+by+the+Portuguese+in+1511%2C+had+lodged+with+the+Chinese+emperor%2C+his+suzerain.&q=far+friendly. Retrieved 18 July 2011. "The reception in China was far from friendly; this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Malacca, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain." (the University of Michigan)
- ^ John Horace Parry (June 1, 1981). The discovery of the sea. University of California Press. p. 238. ISBN 0520042379. http://books.google.com/books?id=kCREcRCFD0QC&dq=malacca+chinese++portuguese&q=sultan+marshes+his+remote+suzerain+chinese+emperor#v=snippet&q=sultan%20marshes%20his%20remote%20suzerain%20chinese%20emperor&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "In 1511... Alboquerque himself sailed ... to attack Malacca...The Sultan of Malacca fled down the coast, to establish himself in the marshes of Johore, whence he sent petitions for redress to his remote suzerain, the Chinese Emperor. These petitions later caused the Portuguese, in their efforts to gain admission to trade at Canton, a great deal of trouble"
- ^ John Horace Parry (June 1, 1981). The discovery of the sea. University of California Press. p. 239. ISBN 0520042379. http://books.google.com/books?id=kCREcRCFD0QC&pg=PA239&dq=malacca+chinese++portuguese&hl=en&ei=fir1TfPPA6Hn0QGv7-zrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CE8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=malacca%20chinese%20%20portuguese&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "When the Portuguese tried to penetrate, in their own ships, to Canton itself, their reception by the Chinese authorities—understandably, in view of their reputation at Malacca—was unwelcoming, and several decades elapsed before they secured a tolerated toehold at Macao."
- ^ Ernest S. Dodge (1976). Islands and Empires: Western Impact on the Pacific and East Asia. Volume 7 of Europe and the World in Age of Expansion. U of Minnesota Press. p. 226. ISBN 0816608539. http://books.google.com/books?id=B9jOp9SlQIwC&pg=PA226&dq=The+inexusable+behavior+of+the+Portuguese,+combined+with+the+ill-chosen+language+of+the+letters+which+Pires+presented+to+the+celestial+emperor,+supplemented+by+a+warning+from+the+Malay+sultan+of+Bintan,+persuaded+the+Chinese+that+Pires+was+indeed+up+to+no+good&hl=en&ei=0nefTsPpB-n20gHF1NTWBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20inexusable%20behavior%20of%20the%20Portuguese%2C%20combined%20with%20the%20ill-chosen%20language%20of%20the%20letters%20which%20Pires%20presented%20to%20the%20celestial%20emperor%2C%20supplemented%20by%20a%20warning%20from%20the%20Malay%20sultan%20of%20Bintan%2C%20persuaded%20the%20Chinese%20that%20Pires%20was%20indeed%20up%20to%20no%20good&f=false. Retrieved 18 July 2011. "The inexusable behavior of the Portuguese, combined with the ill-chosen language of the letters which Pires presented to the celestial emperor, supplemented by a warning from the Malay sultan of Bintan, persuaded the Chinese that Pires was indeed up to no good" )
- ^ Kenneth Scott Latourette (1964). The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1-2 (4, reprint ed.). Macmillan. p. 235. http://books.google.com/books?ei=wUifTpLqF8r50gHE45GFCQ&ct=result&id=MkBwAAAAMAAJ&dq=The+Moslem+ruler+of+Malacca%2C+whom+they+had+dispossessed%2C+complained+of+them+to+the+Chinese+authorities.+A+Portuguese+envoy%2C+Pires%2C+who+reached+Peking+in+1520+was+treated+as+a+spy%2C+was+conveyed+by+imperial+order+to+Canton&q=moslem+pires+1520. Retrieved 18 July 2011. "The Moslem ruler of Malacca, whom they had dispossessed, complained of them to the Chinese authorities. A Portuguese envoy, Pires, who reached Peking in 1520 was treated as a spy, was conveyed by imperial order to Canton" (the University of Michigan)
- ^ Kenneth Scott Latourette (1942). The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1-2 (2 ed.). Macmillan. p. 313. http://books.google.com/books?ei=EUmfTtD_MoXf0QG1qdjJCQ&ct=result&id=ixAhAAAAMAAJ&dq=The+Moslem+ruler+of+Malacca%2C+whom+they+had+dispossessed%2C+complained+of+them+to+the+Chinese+authorities.+A+Portuguese+envoy%2C+Pires%2C+who+reached+Peking+in+1520+was+treated+as+a+spy%2C+was+conveyed+by+imperial+order+to+Canton&q=moslem+ruler+complained+pires. Retrieved 18 July 2011. "The Moslem ruler of Malacca, whom they had dispossessed, complained of them to the Chinese authorities. A Portuguese envoy, Pires, who reached Peking in 1520 was treated as a spy, was conveyed by imperial order to Canton" (the University of Michigan)
- ^ John William Parry (1969). Spices: The story of spices. The spices described. Volume 1 of Spices. Chemical Pub. Co.. p. 102. http://books.google.com/books?id=llo-AQAAIAAJ&q=Fernao+Pires+de+Andrade+reached+Peking,+China,+in+1520,+but+unfortunately+for+that+Portuguese+envoy,+he+was+treated+as+a+spy+and+died+in+a+Cantonese+prison.&dq=Fernao+Pires+de+Andrade+reached+Peking,+China,+in+1520,+but+unfortunately+for+that+Portuguese+envoy,+he+was+treated+as+a+spy+and+died+in+a+Cantonese+prison.&hl=en&ei=bEmfTvfCD8f50gGC7Yi1BA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA. Retrieved 18 July 2011. "Fernao Pires de Andrade reached Peking, China, in 1520, but unfortunately for that Portuguese envoy, he was treated as a spy and died in a Cantonese prison. establishing a" (the University of California)
- ^ Stephen G. Haw (2008). A traveller's history of China (5, illustrated ed.). Interlink Books. p. 134. ISBN 1566564867. http://books.google.com/books?id=CBOpWiyl4NsC&pg=PA134&dq=malacca+chinese+portuguese+embassy&hl=en&ei=BCr1TevSB6ez0AG_sdjtDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=malacca%20chinese%20portuguese%20embassy&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "the Portuguese had established positions in India. . . They seize Malacca in 1511, and immediately began to explore the routes to the south China coast. As early as 1514 the first Portuguese ships reached China. An official embassy was despatched from Malacca to Guangzhou in 1517, but was not allowed to proceed to Beijing until 1520. . . At the same time envoys arrived from Malacca seeking Chinese help against Portuguese rapacity. Shortly afterwards trade with the Europeans was banned, and the members of the Portuguese embassy were throne into prison on their return to Guangzhou; they were never released."
- ^ Armando Cortesão, ed (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack .... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xl. ISBN 8120605357. http://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&pg=PR40&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&hl=en&ei=RSr1TdHSLO2o0AH9-OjrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=malacca%20chinese%20seized%20portuguese%20embassy&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "In the meantime, after the departure of Simão de Andrade, the ship Madalena, which belonged to D. Nuno Manuel, coming from Lisbon under the command of Diogo Calvo, arrived at Tamão with some other vessels from Malacca, among them the junk of Jorge Álvares, which the year before could not sail with Simão de Andrade's fleet, because she had sprung a leak. .., the Chinese seized Vasco Calvo, a brother of Diogo Calvo, and other Portuguese who were in Canton trading ashore. On 27 June 1521 Duarte Coelho arrived with two junks at Tamão. Besides capturing some of the Portuguese vessels, the Chinese blockaded Diogo Calvo's ship and four other Portuguese vessels in Tamão with a large fleet of armed junks. A few weeks later Ambrósio do Rego arrived with two other ships. As many of the Portuguese crews had been killed in the fighting, slaughtered afterwards or taken prisoners, by this time there was not enough Portuguese for all the vessels, and thus Calvo, Coelho, and Rego resolved to abandon the junks in order the batteter to man the three ships. They set sail on 7 September and were attacked by the Chinese fleet, managing however to escape, thanks to a providential gale which scattered the enemy junks, and arrived at Malacca in October 1521. Vieira mentions other junks which arrived in China with Portuguese aboard; all were attacked, and the entire crews were killed fighting or were taken prisoners and slaughtered later."
- ^ Armando Cortesão, ed (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack .... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xl. ISBN 8120605357. http://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&pg=PR40&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&hl=en&ei=RSr1TdHSLO2o0AH9-OjrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=malacca%20chinese%20seized%20portuguese%20embassy&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "Finally Pires and his companions left Peking on 22 May and arrived in Canton on 22 Sept. 1521. Francisco de Budoia died during the journey. From Peking instructions were sent to Canton that the ambassador and his suite should be kept in custody, and that only after the Portuguese had evacuated Malacca and returned it to its king, a vassal of the Emperor of China, would the members of the embassy be liberated."
- ^ Armando Cortesão, ed (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack .... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xli. ISBN 8120605357. "But many others died in prison, some of hunger, many strangled, 'after carrying boards stating that they should die as sea-robbers', one struck on the head with a mallet, and others beaten to death. Pires and his companionis arrived at Canton a fortnight after the three Portuguese ships had escaped from Tamão, and they found themselves in a most difficult position... "Tomé Pires replifed that he had not come for that purpose, nor was it meet for him to discuss such a matter; that it would be evident from the letter he had brought that he had no knowledge of anthing else. . . . With these questions he kept us on our knees for four hourse; and when he had tired himself out, he sent each one back to the prison in which he was kept. On 14 August 1522 the Pochanci put fetters on the hands of Tomé Pires, and on those of the company he put fetters, and irons on their feet, url=http://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&pg=PR40&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&hl=en&ei=RSr1TdHSLO2o0AH9-OjrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=pires%20companions%20fortnight%20three%20position&f=false"
- ^ Armando Cortesão, ed (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack .... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xlii. ISBN 8120605357. "clerks who were present wrote down ten and stole three hundred . . . The goods that they took from us were twenty quintals of rhubarb, one thousand five hundred or six hundred rich pieces of silk, a matter of four thousand slik handkerchiefs which the Chinese call sheu-pa (xopas) of Nanking, and many fans, and also three arrobas of musk in powerder, one thousand three hundred pods of musk, four thousand odd taels of silver and seventy or eighty taels of gold and other pices of silver, and all the cloths, url=http://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&pg=PR40&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&hl=en&ei=RSr1TdHSLO2o0AH9-OjrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=rhubarb%20one%20thousand%20five%20hundred&f=false"
- ^ Armando Cortesão, ed (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack .... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xlii. ISBN 8120605357. http://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&pg=PR40&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&hl=en&ei=RSr1TdHSLO2o0AH9-OjrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=martim%20afonso%20melo%20countinho%20lisbon%20sailed&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "Meanwhile from India, where the news of this state of affairs had not yet arrived, another fleet of four ships under the command of Martim Afonso de Merlo Coutinho sailed for China in April 1522. Countinho had left Lisbon just one year before, commimssioned by Dom Manuel wih a message of good-will to the Emperor of China, for which purpose he carried another ambassador with him."
- ^ Armando Cortesão, ed (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack .... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xliii. ISBN 8120605357. http://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&pg=PR40&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&hl=en&ei=RSr1TdHSLO2o0AH9-OjrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=snippet&q=six%20sail%20left%2010%20%20attacked%20&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "Coutinho's fleet of six sail left Malacca on 10 July and arrived at Tamão in August 1522. They were sson attacked by the Chinese fleet. The Portuguese had many men killed and taken prisoners, two ships and the junk were lost, and after vain efforts to re-establish relations with the Cantonese authorities, Coutinho returned with the other ships to Malacca, where he arrived in the middle of October 1522. Though some chroniclers put the blame on the Chinese, Chang quotes Chinese sources which assert that the Portuguese should be held responsible for the outbreak of hostilities."
- ^ Armando Cortesão, ed (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack .... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xlvi. ISBN 8120605357. http://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&q=intended+come+against#v=onepage&q=coutinho%20fol.%20121%201522%20correctly&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "On fol. 108v. it is stated that Martim Afonso de Melo Coutinho went from Malacca to China in 1521, but in fol. 121 it is correctly said that he arrived in 1522."
- ^ Armando Cortesão, ed (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack .... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xliii. ISBN 8120605357. http://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&pg=PR40&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&hl=en&ei=RSr1TdHSLO2o0AH9-OjrDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=mandarins%20letter%20ex%20king%20returned%20master&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "According to Vieira the mandarins again ordered that Pires should write a letter to the King of Portugal, which the ambassador of the ex-king of Malacca should take to Malacca, in order that his country and people might be returned to their former master; if a satisfactory reply did not come, the Portuguese ambassador would not return. A draft letter in Chinese was sent to the imprisoned Portuguese, from which they wrote three letters, for King Manuel, the Governor of India and the Captain of Malacca. These letters were delivered to the Cantonese authorities on 1 Oct. 1522. The Malay ambassador was not anxious to be the courier, nor was it easy to find another. At last a junk with fifteen Malays and fifteen Chinese sailed from Canton on 31 May 1523 and reached Pattani."
- ^ Armando Cortesão, ed (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack .... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xliv. ISBN 8120605357. http://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&q=intended+come+against#v=snippet&q=intended%20come%20against&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "A message came to the king of Bintang from his ambassador [in Canton], and the man who brought it soon returned. The report which the king of Bintang was spreading in the country is that the Chinese intended to come against Malacca. This is not very certain, though there are things that may happen The man who brought a message to the king of Bintang 'soon returned', says Jorge de Albuquerque. Vieira tells us that the junk 'returned with a message from the king of Malacca, and reached Canton on the 5th September' (fol.110V.). . . 'On the day of St. Nicholas [6 Dec.] in the year 1522 they put boards on them [the Portuguese prisoners] with the sentence that they should die and be exposed in pillories as robbers. The sentences said: "Petty sea robbers sent by the great tobber falsely; they come to spy out our country; let them die in pillories as robbers." a report was sent to the king according to the information of the mandarins, and the king confirmed the sentence. On 23 Sept. 1523 these twenty-three persons were each one cut in pieces, to wit, heads, legs, arms, and their private members placed in their mouths, the trunk of the body being divided into two pices around the belly. In the streets of Canton,"
- ^ Armando Cortesão, ed (1990). The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515 ; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues : Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas : rutter of a voyage in the red sea, nautical rules, almanack .... Volume 1 of The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, Written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, Rutter of a Voyage in the Red Sea, Nautical Rules, Almanack and Maps, Written and Drawn in the East Before 1515 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Asian Educational Services. p. xlv. ISBN 8120605357. http://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&dq=malacca+chinese+seized+portuguese+embassy&q=intended+come+against#v=onepage&q=heads%20private%20members%20musical%20instruments&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "both those of Canton and those of the environs, in order to give them to understand that they thought nothing of the Portuguese, so that the people might not talk about Portuguese. Thus our ships were captured through two captains not agreeing, and so all in the ships were taken, they were all killed, and their heads and private members were carried on the backs of the Portuguese in front of the Mandarin of Canton with the playing of musical instruments and rejoicing, were exhibited suspended in the streets, and were then thrown into the dunghills."
- ^ Qingxin Li (2006). Maritime silk road. 五洲传播出版社. p. 117. ISBN 7508509323. http://books.google.com/books?id=TV6f2XWG6t4C&pg=PA117&dq=From+there+they+retreated+to+other+islands+off+the+coast+of+China+including+Nan'ao+Island+to+the+east+of+Guangdong,+Shuangyu+Island+of+Wenzhou+in+Zhejiang,+Wuyu+Island+and+Yue+Harbor+in+Zhangzhou+of+Fujian,+where+they+colluded+with+powerful+and+wealthy+families,+scoundrels+of+the+sea+and+Japanese+pirates,+dealing+in+contraband+and+plundering.+In+1547,+the+Ming+court+appointed+Right+Deputy+Commander+and+imperial+agent+Zhu+Wang+as+provincial+commander+in+charge+of+Zhejiang+and+Fujian's+naval+defenses,+strictly+enforcing+the+ban+on+maritime+trade+and+intercourse+with+foreign+countries.+Zhu+Wan+also+destroyed+the+Portuguese+fortress+on+Shuangyu+Island+and+eradicated+all+Chinese+and+Foreign+buccaneers&hl=en&ei=yT_LTv6LNIbu0gHSo4xF&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=From%20there%20they%20retreated%20to%20other%20islands%20off%20the%20coast%20of%20China%20including%20Nan'ao%20Island%20to%20the%20east%20of%20Guangdong%2C%20Shuangyu%20Island%20of%20Wenzhou%20in%20Zhejiang%2C%20Wuyu%20Island%20and%20Yue%20Harbor%20in%20Zhangzhou%20of%20Fujian%2C%20where%20they%20colluded%20with%20powerful%20and%20wealthy%20families%2C%20scoundrels%20of%20the%20sea%20and%20Japanese%20pirates%2C%20dealing%20in%20contraband%20and%20plundering.%20In%201547%2C%20the%20Ming%20court%20appointed%20Right%20Deputy%20Commander%20and%20imperial%20agent%20Zhu%20Wang%20as%20provincial%20commander%20in%20charge%20of%20Zhejiang%20and%20Fujian's%20naval%20defenses%2C%20strictly%20enforcing%20the%20ban%20on%20maritime%20trade%20and%20intercourse%20with%20foreign%20countries.%20Zhu%20Wan%20also%20destroyed%20the%20Portuguese%20fortress%20on%20Shuangyu%20Island%20and%20eradicated%20all%20Chinese%20and%20Foreign%20buccaneers&f=false. Retrieved 21st November 2011. "From there they retreated to other islands off the coast of China including Nan'ao Island to the east of Guangdong, Shuangyu Island of Wenzhou in Zhejiang, Wuyu Island and Yue Harbor in Zhangzhou of Fujian, where they colluded with powerful and wealthy families, scoundrels of the sea and Japanese pirates, dealing in contraband and plundering. In 1547, the Ming court appointed Right Deputy Commander and imperial agent Zhu Wang as provincial commander in charge of Zhejiang and Fujian's naval defenses, strictly enforcing the ban on maritime trade and intercourse with foreign countries. Zhu Wan also destroyed the Portuguese fortress on Shuangyu Island and eradicated all Chinese and Foreign buccaneers"
- ^ C. Guillot, Denys Lombard, Roderich Ptak, ed (1998). From the Mediterranean to the China Sea: miscellaneous notes. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 179. ISBN 344704098X. http://books.google.com/books?id=aSEJqSQS7wkC&pg=PA179&dq=malacca+chinese++portuguese++attack&hl=en&ei=lyr1TYTtCKfn0QGi_6yFDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "Chinese authors have argued, the Malacca-Chinese were not treated too favorably by the Portuguese...it is generally true that Chinese ships tended to avoid Malacca after 1511, sailing to other ports instead. Presumably these ports were mainly on the east coast of the Malayan peninsula and on Sumatra. Johore, in the deep south of the peninsula, was another place where many Chinese went... After 1511, many Chinese who were Muslims sided with other Islamic traders against the Portuguese; according to The Malay Annals of Semarang and Cerbon, Chinese settlers living on northern Java even became involved in counter-attacks on Malacca. Javanese vessels were indeed sent out but suffered a disastrous defeat. Demak and Japara alone lost more than seventy sail."
- ^ Peter Borschberg, ed (2004). Iberians in the Singapore-Melaka area and adjacent regions (16th to 18th century). Volume 14 of South China and maritime Asia (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 12. ISBN 3447051078. http://books.google.com/books?id=ggyl2FSzXvgC&pg=PA12&dq=malacca+chinese++portuguese++attack&hl=en&ei=lyr1TYTtCKfn0QGi_6yFDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=northern%20java%20counter%20attacks%20residents&f=false. Retrieved 14 December 2011. "still others withdrew to continue business with the Javanese, Malays and Gujaratis...When the Islamic world considered counter-attacks against Portuguese Melaka, some Chinese residents may have provided ships and capital. These Chinese had their roots either in Fujian, or else may have been of Muslim descent. This group may have consisted of small factions that fled Champa after the crisis of 1471."
- ^ Malaysia History
- ^ Malaysia.com
External links
See also